Understanding Kashmir

Kashmir Valley

Kashmir has been at the heart of a territorial dispute between India and Pakistan ever since the two nations separated in 1947. Both claim Kashmir. In fact, Kashmir is divided into three political entities:

• Jammu & Kashmir under India (J&K)
• Azad kashmir or Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (POK)
• China Occupied Aksai Chin (South Tibet)

Kashmir Political Geograpy

Bollywood movie - Kashmir Files (2022) has re-ignited this debate. The film is produced by pro-BJP Zee Studios, written and directed by Vivek Agnihotri, and represents a fictional story line about the murders and final exodus of Kashmiri Hindus from the Muslim-majority Kashmir Valley during 1990s. 

Origin of Kashmir

In the Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the 12th century, it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was a big lake, When the lake drained out through the passage of Varah-Moola (Baramula), the people began to settle there as it was a peaceful heaven for spiritual and academic works.

The well known Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini from Punjab in 5th century called the people of Kashmir Kashmirikas. The translation means "People of Kash Mountains" and sounds similar to the neighboring mountan range - Pamir. Tibetan called the land Kachmir and its people Kachi. Chinese traveler Huien Tsang called it Kia-shi-Milo. The Ancient Greeks called the region Kasperia. 

People of Kashmir

This is graphical representation of the people of Jammu and Kashmir made by Arsalan Khan and Rajja Sourav Singh Sarmal. 

People of Kashmir (Arsalan Khan and Rajja Sourav Singh Sarmal)

Ladakhi are the inhabitants of the Ladakh region and are of Tibetan descent. Most Ladakhis are Buddhists but some have converted to Islam.

Kargili or the Purigpas inhabit the Western part of Ladakh are also a part of the Tibetan family. Kargili are mostly Muslim.

Bakarwals or the Gujjars are the nomadic pastoral people who inhabited the foothills of the Himalayas and move to the mountains in the summers with their livestock. They follow Islam.

Dogra are Rajputs who inhabit the foothills of Jammu and speak Dogri language which is close relative of Punjabi. The Dogras are mostly Hindu though some are Sikhs.

Potohari live across the Potohar Plateau which stretches from Kashmir Valley to Rawalpindi. Majority are Muslims but a sizeable Potohari comminity are Hindus and Sikhs living in Jammu and Kashmir valley.

Kashmiri are the people of Kashmir Valley. They are the largest indegenous group of people in the state. They speak Kashmiri language which belongs to the Dardic family of languages. Kashmiris are mostly Muslim though a small minority of Kashmiri Hindu Pundits still exists.

Gilgiti are the inhabitants of Gilgit Valley in the North West of the state. They speak the Shina language. They are also found in Gurez and Drass region and follow Islam but a few have remained Buddhist in Ladakh.

Kalash inhabit Chitral Region in POK and have a distinct culture which has been under threat of extinction. Most Kalasha have converted to Islam though a small number (3,000 app) still follow traditional pagan beliefs.

Hunza or the Burusho people inhabit the Hunza Valley in the extreme North of the state. They speak the Burushaski language and follow Islam.

Baltis are the inhabitants of Baltistan and are of Tibetan origin with Dardic admix. Their language is Balti, which is a part of Tibetan language group. They follow Islam.

Conversion to Islam

Rinchana, a Tibetan was the first Islamic ruler of Kashmir. Rinchana's conversion to Islam is a subject of Kashmiri folklore. He was persuaded to accept Islam by his minister Shah Mir.  Shah Mir ater staged a  coup on Rinchana and secured Muslim rule in Kashmir.

Mughal Rule (1540-1752)

Mughal general Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a member of ruling family in Kashgar, Kazakhistan invaded Kashmir in c. 1540 CE on behalf of emperor Humayun. The Kazakh became the governor of Kashmir after defeating Tibetans, and conquering Baltistan and Kashmir Valley

In 1700, a servant of a wealthy Kashmiri merchant brought Mo-i Muqqadas (the hair of the Prophet Muhammad), to the valley. The relic was housed in the Hazrat Bal mosque on the banks of Dal Lake.

Sacred Hair of Prophet Mohamad at Hazrat Bal

Conversion of Kashmiri Pundits

By 16th century, Hindu influence declined as Muslim missionaries immigrated to Kashmir from Central Asia and Persia. Soon Persian replaced Sanskrit as the official language. A majority of Kashmiri Pundits dropped priesthood and strated working for the Muslim rulers. It was during this period when  Kashmiri Pandits split into their three subcastes: 

• Guru/Bāchabat (priests)
• Jyotish/Zutshi (astrologers)
• Kārkun (who were historically mainly employed by the Muslim rulers). 

The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, himself a grandson of a Hindu Rajput princess, wanted to convert India-the land of ‘infidels’ into an Islamic country. He declared conversion to Islam as his imperial policy. He demolished temples and humiliated Pundits. In November 1665, he banned Hindu festivals Holi and Diwali, banned music and dismissed musicians. Jezya Tax was imposed on Hindus. 

Aurangzeb - Mughal Emperor

The experiment of mass conversion was first tried in Kashmir. The Kashmiri Pandits were well known for their scholarship and converting them to Islam would encourage other Hindus to embrace Islam. Surrounded by Muslim population, they could be threatened with complete annihilation. It is said that 6 Munn (1 Munn = 37 kg) of sacred threads were burnt in Kashmir. According to Prof. Mohan Lal Koul each sacred thread weigh about than 3-4 grams, rough calculation will put number to about 55,500 Pundits converted or executed.

The fact remains that the vast majority of Muslim Kashmiri belong to that group of Pundits and even carry their Pundit last names, such as Dar (Dhar), Butt (Bhatt), Kaul, Chakoo, and Kichlu, etc.

Protection under Guru Tegh Bahadur

Kashmiri Pandits met and decided to go to Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Guru of Sikhs, and ask for his help in saving the Hindu religion. On May 25,1675, about 500 Kashmiri Pundits led by Pundit Kripa Ram of Mattan, Kashmir came to Anandpur in Punjab to narrate their story of repression and woes to the Guru. 

Kashmiri Pundits with Guru Tegh Bahadur

Guru Tegh Bahadur was moved by their cry for help and advised them that the situation requires a supreme sacrifice to awaken the people of India. His son, Guru Gobind Singh, who was just nine years old at that time, said; ”Who else can be more truthful and sublime than you!” Guru Tegh Bahadur recommended the Kashmiri Pundits to tell the emperor that if he could convert the Guru to Islam, all Pundits of Kashmir would gladly follow. 

On November 11, 1675, Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed at Chandani Chowk, Delhi under the order of Aurangzeb. The place of his execution is now known as Gurdwara Sisganj Sahib. Three of the Guru’s devotees, Bhai Mati Das, Bhai Sati Das and Bhai Dayala, had been tortured to death a day earlier to deter the Guru.

Guru Tegh Bahadur’s martyrdom was a turning point of greatest importance in Indian history. In his supreme sacrifice ignited a sense of self-pride among the Indians resulting in the triumph of Khalsa, the spiritual Sikh saint-soldier and the end of Mughal rule in India.

Afghan Rule (1752-1819)

Taking advantage of the declining Mughal Empire, the Afghan Empire under Ahmad Shah Durrani took control of Kashmir in 1752. The actions of Afghan rulers led to further destruction of Hindu and Buddhist temples and persecution of Kashmiri Pundits. Many Kashmiri Pundits migrated to Jammu and Punjab to escape. The outcome of this migration and forcible convisrion led to Kashmir Valley becaming a predominantly Muslim region.

Sikh Rule (1819-1846)

After over three centuries of Muslim rule, Kashmir finally fell to the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of Punjab after the Battle of Shopian in 1819. As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they welcomed the new Sikh rulers. Diwan Motiram, first Sikh the governor of Kashmir was moved by the plight of  Kashmiri Pundits and reopened Hindu temples and banned mass gathering at Jama Masjid of Srinagar during Friday Namaz. These actions grew discontent among the Kashmiri Muslims.

Sikhs recaptured Kashmir again under the leadership of Hari Singh Nalwa and Sardar Mihan Singh was appointed the governor of Kashmir. Mihan Singh was a popular rular and introduced several social and economic reforms:

• Removed restrictions on Kashmiri Pandits under Afghan rule regarding worship, dress, and some customs
• Reduced tax on saffron, and encouraged its cultivation and trade
• Imported large quantities of grain and poultry from the Punjab
• Gave relief in land revenue, and granted 'taqavi' loans liberally to cultivators
• Promoted shawl trade by reducing tariff duties on Kashmiri shawl makers
• Serais were built at convenient places for traders and travellers
• Suppressed organized thugs called Galwans who had terrorized Kashmir
• Complied 'Tarikh i Kashmir' documenting histoy of Kashmir

Mihan Singh had conflict with Dogra Rajas who were suppresing shawl trade from Kashmir valley in an effort to force shawl traders to move to Jammu. Mihan Singh was later assissinated by Dogra soldiers days before the battle of Sabhraon.

Dogra Rule (1846-1947)

After Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839, the British, sensing this was an apt moment to begin their long-cherished dream of annexing Punjab. Raja Gulab Singh Dogra of Jammu  switched allegience from Sikhs to the British. He was awarded the rule of Jammu & Kashmir by the British. Raja Gulab Singh was succeeded by his son Ranbir Singh in 1857. Pratap Singh was next in the line in 1885. Hari Singh took to the throne in 1925. During Dogra rule, the State administration was dominated by the Kashmiri Pundits and Muslims remained socially and economically backward. 

The Dogra rule came to an end shortly when pro-Pakistan Pathan tribals invaded Kashmir. Having no choice, Raja Hari Singh signed treaty for Jammu and Kashmir to became a state of the democratic republic of India.

Pathan Tribals in Kashmir

Saving Kashmir

The Muslim League-run Pakistan government had inducted Pathans tribesmen called Kabaili Lashkar under codename "Operation Gulmarg”. The Maharaja of Kasmir was rudely shaken in the morning of October 22, when his forces in Muzaffarabad were overrun and slaughtered by rampaging tribal hordes from the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP – now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) who were marching ahead to capture Srinagar.

Kabaili Lashkar enroute to Srinagar

 The tribal men then moved further towards Uri in Kashmir Valley in a fleet of buses provided by Pakistan.  Seeing them, the Dogra army fled to the safety of Jammu. Kashmir Valley was abandoned and no resistence offered to the Lashkar.  The undisciplined Pathan irregulars made rapid advance towards Srinagar. They pillaged Kashmiri villages and raped Kashmiri women - Muslim and Hindu both.

Kashmiris escaping Pathan Invasion - 1947

The Maharaja of Kashmir requested Indian Government for military aid. Indian Army had no presence in the state. At the crack of dawn on October 27, the first battalion of Sikh Regiment led by Lt Col Dewan Ranjit Rai were airlifted from at Safdarjung airport in Delhi with instructions to hover over Srinagar airport and land only if it was free of raiders. The first flight landed at 0930 hours, with others following at periodic intervals, and by noon the airport was secured.

Ist Sikh Airlift to Srinagar - 1947

Pakistan backed Lashkar invaders were already in Baramulla, just 35 miles from Srinagar. They were making rapid progress towards the state capital. The Sikh Regiment took defensive position outside Srinagar. After securing Srinagar, The Sikh Regiment dashed to Baramulla, where the raiders were indulging in killings, rapes and plunder. The raiders were surprised to see Sikh troops and a gun battle ensued. Lt Col Rai lost his life, but succeeded in halting forward march of the raiders. 

1 Sikh in Srinagar

By the end of the day, Baramulla was secured and the raiders were in retreat. Ist Sikh were ably assisted by the Kumaon regiment and repulsed the Pakistani backed tribalmen who fled back towards Pakistan. Soon Kargil was also secured by the Indian Army.

Securing Kashmir Valley in 1947

This was a devastating blow for the raiders, who left behind thousands dead and many wounded. The air support by Indian Airforce led by shattered the morale of the enemy and drove them beyond Baramulla and Kashmir was secured for India. 

Relief was provided to the people of Kashmir Valley reeling under the invasion of Pakistani backed lashkar raiders.

Indian Arly providing Relief to Kashmiris

References

• https://www.bbc.com/news/10537286
• https://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/columns/2021/oct/22/kashmir-a-forgotten-history-v-2374137.html
• https://adimagazine.com/articles/kashmir-a-historical-timeline/
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kashmir#:~:text=The%20Princely%20State%20of%20Kashmir,which%20it%20experienced%20on%20the
• https://iranicaonline.org/articles/magi
• https://scroll.in/article/990144/how-the-origins-of-persian-and-kashmiri-new-year-rituals-may-be-found-in-the-vedas
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmiri_Pandits
• https://www.ikashmir.net/clgadoo/6.html
• https://www.nriinternet.com/Associations/USA/A_Z/K/KASHMIR-HINDU-FOUNDATION/GURU-TEG-Bhadhur/index.htm
• https://travelthehimalayas.com/kiki/2019/9/11/the-indigenous-people-of-jammu-and-kashmir
• https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/kashmir-win-recounting-jks-accession-to-india-in-1947/articleshow/66423603.cms
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